The term “new history” (or “new time”) was first introduced by the humanists of the 16th century. In modern historical science, new time (English Modern time) is identified with the period of establishment and development of capitalist relations and is limited to the conditional chronological framework of 1640-1918.

The capitalist mode of production, which was more advanced than the feudal one, was first developed in the countries of Western Europe, where the first bourgeois revolutions took place: in the Netherlands (1566-1609), England (1640-1649) and France (1789-1794).

The English bourgeois revolution had a profound and long-lasting influence on the process of breaking up feudal relations throughout Europe. That is why in modern historical science, 1640 — the year of the beginning of the English bourgeois revolution — conditionally defines the boundary between the Middle Ages and the new time.

The process of establishing the capitalist system stretched out over a long period. Important milestones of this process were the bourgeois revolutions in the Netherlands, England, the USA (1775–1783), France, Spain (1814), Portugal (1820), Belgium (1830), Austria, Hungary, Germany and Italy (1848–1849), Japan (1868), as well as the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861

Bourgeois social relations in the new time were of decisive importance. Along with this, pre-capitalist relations continued to exist in various regions of the world (in Asia, Africa, Latin America and on the islands of Oceania): feudal, slave-owning, and even tribal.

A characteristic feature of the new history is the development of colonial expansion and the creation of the colonial system of capitalism. The struggle of the colonial powers for the redistribution of colonies and spheres of influence was of paramount importance in unleashing the First World War of 1914-1918. The year of its completion (1918) was adopted in the world historical science as a conditional milestone between the new and recent history.

Features of the development of medicine

Capitalist production felt the urgent need to develop natural science knowledge (mechanics, physics, chemistry). The 18th century French materialism, which played a major role in the preparation of the Great French bourgeois revolution, had a special influence on their development. The perennial edition of the Encyclopedia of Sciences, Arts and Crafts (Denis Diderot, Jean d'Alam-ber) and the works of the greatest French thinkers of this period — the philosophers-enlighteners Francois Marie-Arouet Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau — were central to this process.

The activities of the materialist physicians Henri Léruux a (Leroy, Henry, 1598–1679), Julien Lametrie (La Mettrie, Julien Offreyde, 1709–1751) and Pierre Cabanis (Cabanis, Pierre-Jean-Georges, 1757—1808 ) —Presented representatives of the French school of mechanistic materialism.

The great natural-scientific discoveries of the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries were decisive for the development of dialectic views on the nature and development of medicine, among which F. Engels noted three main ones: the theory of the cellular structure of living organisms, the law of conservation and transformation of energy, and evolutionary teaching (tab. 10) - “three great discoveries”, which explained all the basic processes in nature by natural causes.

Fundamental discoveries in the leading branches of natural science were decisive for the development of science and technology. On the basis of these, medicine was further developed.

ANATOMY

As already noted, the founder of scientific anatomy is Andreas Vesalius, who not only corrected the mistakes of his predecessors and significantly expanded anatomical knowledge, but also summarized and systematized them (that is, he made science from anatomy). After A. Vesalius, the professors began to publicly dissect the corpses of the dead in their own hands, aiming at both studying the structure of the human body and teaching anatomy to students.

Autopsies, at first rare and in unsuitable premises for this purpose, in the 16th — 17th centuries. turned into solemn demonstrations, which took place with the special permission of the authorities in the presence of colleagues and students. For them, they began to construct special rooms according to the type of amphitheaters (in Padua, 1594; Bologna, 1637, etc.)

In the XVII century. the center of anatomical research from Italy moved to France, England and especially the Netherlands. The largest anatomical school of that time was formed within the walls of the University of Leiden. Her pupil was a Dutch anatomist and surgeon from Amsterdam Nicholas Tyulp (Tulp, Nikolas, 1593–1674, fig. 107), known for his research on comparative anatomy; He first studied the structure of the great apes in comparison with the human body. The tulip belongs to the symbol of medical practice - a burning candle - and the words “AP-is inserviendo consumor” (by serving others, I destroy myself): - “When I shine for others, I burn”.

A prominent anatomist of that time was the Dutchman Frederick Ruysch (Ruysch, Frederik, 1638–1731), a convinced follower of Vesalius. A graduate of advanced Leiden University, Ruysch in 1665 defended his thesis and was invited to Amsterdam to give lectures on the anatomy of the city’s surgeons' guild (Fig. 108). He perfectly mastered the techniques of preparing anatomical preparations and by injecting blood vessels with colored and hardening liquids, invented an original method of embalming corpses, personally performed a unique collection of museum exhibits (congenital anomalies and malformations) and created the first anatomical museum. For his merits F. Ruysch was elected a member of the German Leopoldin Academy (1705), the Royal Society of London (Royal Society) (1720), and the Paris Academy of Sciences (1727).

In Russia, the beginning of the anatomical autopsies is associated with the reign of Peter I (1682-1725), who showed great interest in medicine and the development of the medical business. While in Amsterdam (in 1698 and 1717), Peter 1 attended lectures and the anatomical museum of Ruysch, attended operations and anatomical dissections. He received a notification in advance about each case of the opening and penetrated the sectional hall through a special secret door.

In 1717, Peter I purchased the anatomical collection of Ruysch (about -2 thousand exhibits) for 30 thousand Dutch guilders. It laid the foundation for the funds of the first Russian museum, the Kunstkamera, the Petrovsky Museum of Rarities (now the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg). By decree of the king (1718), this collection began to expand and supplement the works of Russian scientists. (At present, the remaining part of F. Ruysch's preparations is in the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Russian Academy of Sciences, at the Kirov Military Medical Academy and the Kazan Medical Institute.)

Returning to Russia after his first trip to the countries of Western Europe (1697–1698), Peter I established a lecture course for anatomy of boyars with demonstrations on corpses in Moscow in 1699. The medicinal school founded by Peter’s decree at the General Hospital in Moscow (1707) was also used for autopsies, at which he was often present. The author- “The Stories of the Acts of Peter the Great” I.I. Golikov writes about this: “He ordered himself to be notified if it was necessary to anatomize the body in a hospital or somewhere else or to do some kind of surgical operation, and when only time allowed I rarely missed such a case so as not to be present at it, and often even helped operations. Over time, he acquired so much skill in that he could very skillfully anatomize the body, bleed, pulled out his teeth, and did that with a great desire ... "

Teaching anatomy in Russia from the first steps was conducted on a natural science basis. Initially, when teaching students, foreign authors' textbooks (Bidloo, Gottfried; Blankardt, Stefan, and others) were used in Latin and German. Then the best of them began to translate into Russian.

The first translation of the anatomical treatise into the Slavic language was made in 1658: the monk Epiphanius Sla-vinetsky translated A. Vezaliy's book Epitome, published in Amsterdam in 1642, and called it Vrachevskaya Anatomy. Unfortunately, the manuscript of this translation has not been preserved to this day.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. especially for Peter I, the anatomical atlas of Gottfried Bidloo, “The Anatomy of the Human Body in 105 Tables” (“Anatomia humani corporis ...”), which was published in 1685 in Amsterdam, was translated into Russian. In 1729, this translation was made again, but, like the first, it was not published in Russian and existed only in manuscript form.

. G. Bidloo's nephew - Nikolai Lambertovich Bidloo, who was invited to Russia in 1702 and founded the first school of medicine in Moscow (see above), compiled a very valuable handwritten guide “Instructions for Learners of Surgery in the Anatomical Theater”, which the first Russian healers studied (first published in 1979).

The first domestic atlas of anatomy "Syllabus, seu index omnium partium corporis humani figuris illust-ratus" in Latin was compiled in 1744 by Martyn Ivanovich Schein (1712-1762), whose activity was important for the development of national anatomy and surgery. Being an excellent draftsman, M. I. Shein himself executed most of the illustrations for this first in Russia edition of the anatomical CKOfo of atlas. In 1757, for the first time, he translated into Russian the “Abbreviated Anatomy, the whole anatomical brief containing the one” by Lawrence Geister, who became Russia's first anatomy guide in Russian. Being engaged in translations into Russian of anatomical and medical terms, M. I. Shein laid the foundations of Russian scientific medical. terminology that did not exist before it. He believed in the future of national science: “Geography, navigation, architecture, medicine and other knowledge, which were mostly unknown in Russia, are now open to us that we already have suitable Russian geographers, navigators, architects and physicians and, perhaps, in a short time, our descendants will see all of it in much greater perfection ... "

Despite the hostile attitude that young Russian science experienced during its formation on the part of some foreign scientists, Russia in a short time became the birthplace of eminent anatomical scientists. Among them, KI Schepin (1728–1770) is the first Russian in terms of t-rationality, anatomy professor, who began teaching medicine in Russian, and A. P. Protasov (1724–1796) '- the first Russian anatomical academic (1771) , student of M. V. Lomonosov.

The first anatomical school in Russia was created at the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy by Academician Peter Andreyevich Zagorsky (1764–1846). Continuing the work begun by M. I. Shein, A. P. Protasov and N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik (see p. 300), P. A. Zagorsky asserted Russian anatomical terminology instead of Latin. He created the first in Russia, the original domestic anatomy guide "Condensed Anatomy ..." in two books, which was reprinted five times.

It is important to note here that anatomy as a science and a subject of teaching did not stand out as an independent discipline until the beginning of the 19th century. She combined with physiology, pathology, and later pathological physiology and was studied in close connection with surgery. Thus, the outstanding anatomists of the time were at the same time brilliant surgeons, therapists, and physiologists. Among them S. G. Zybelin (1735–1802) —the first Russian professor at Moscow University, A. M. Shum-Llyansky (1748–1795), who defended his thesis “On the structure of the kidneys”, E. O. Mukhin (1766–1850) —Lecturer of Moscow University, author, Anatomy Course, and many others.

Academician Ilya Vasilyevich Buyalsky (1789–1866) —P.A. Zagorsky’s pupil and his successor in the Department of Anatomy of the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy (1833) left a deep mark on Russian and world anatomy.

In 1828, I. V: Vuyalsky published Anatomic-Surgical Tables, which immediately became world-famous (Fig. 109). They consisted of 14 tables and 36 figures depicting life-size organs; their value was also determined by the fact that the anatomy textbook of P. A. Zagorsky that existed at that time and the textbook of surgery by I. F. Bush did not have illustrations. The tables of I. V. Buyalsky combine the data of topographic anatomy for operative surgery and were the first Russian national atlas of operative surgery.

“This publication can be called magnificent and it does honor not only to the writer, but also to the whole of Russian surgery,” I. Buyalsky wrote about The Tables. He was a skilled anatomist and a brilliant surgeon. He did a lot to create new surgical instruments, developed methods for embalming corpses, proposed new methods for making thin corrosive anatomical preparations. The corrosive preparations of the kidneys (1863) made by him have survived to this day.

Among the first Russian surgeons, I. V. Buyalsky applied anesthesia (see p. 292), a starch dressing, and antiseptic agents. He developed a number of new surgeries (in the upper jaw, blood vessels, etc.). He wrote large monographs “Brief General Anatomy of the Human Body” (1844) ”,“ “Anatomical Notes for Learners of Painting and Sculpture at the Imperial Academy of Arts” (1860). In 1866, a memorial gold medal was cast in honor of I. V. Buyalsky.

The highest flowering of surgical anatomy is associated with the activities of Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov - the great anatomist and surgeon, the creator of topographic anatomy, the innovator of the methods of “ice” anatomy and cuts of frozen corpses. His fundamental scientific works brilliantly proved the importance of the practical importance of anatomy for clinical medicine (see p. 290).

At the end of the XIX century. large anatomical schools were formed in the leading scientific centers of Russia: at the University of Moscow — the school of D. N. Zer-iwea (1834-1917), which made a great contribution to the study of the anatomy of the central nervous system; at Kiev University, the school of V. A. Bets (1834–1894) —the creator of the study of the architectonics of the cerebral cortex.

In Petersburg, Peter Frantsevich Lesgaft (1837-1909) developed the functional direction in medicine - the founder of theoretical, anatomy and the founder of the national science of physical education. He came to an assessment of physical education from anatomy: according to Lesgaft, the form continuously changes under the influence of functions and nutritional conditions, therefore, the perfect form of a healthy organism is directly dependent on the active influence on it of exercises developed on a scientific basis. Thus, PF Lesgaft for the first time laid a bridge between anatomy and physical education and education of people.

The introduction of new research methods expanded the possibilities of scientific anatomy and brought it even closer to clinical medicine. Thus, the discovery of X-rays and the creation of X-ray anatomy made it possible to use the method of x-ray diagnostics in the clinic. The importance of anatomy for a doctor of any specialization cannot be overestimated, because “a doctor is not an anatomist not only useless, but also harmful” (E.O. Mukhin).